Mexico’s war of independence ultimately achieved an end to Spanish rule in New Spain; in the process, it also brought about the ascendancy of the military in Mexican politics for the next century.
The beginning of Mexico’s War of Independence is generally dated to El Grito
de
Following Father Hidalgo’s death, leadership of the independence movement fell to another parish priest, the mestizo José María Morelos. The criollos distrusted the insurgency, especially after Father Morelos began to espouse land redistribution and racial equality. Although much more gifted with military acumen than Father Hidalgo, Morelos resorted to guerrilla warfare because of the small size of his army. His tactics worked. By the spring of 1813, his forces encircled Mexico City. Morelos occupied himself with the political issues of the structure of government after independence. Six months later, royalist forces under General Félix María Calleja
Mexican Territories Before the Texas Revolution
Only two vestiges of the independence movement remained: the rebel guerrilla forces under chieftain general Guadalupe Victoria
When the Spanish monarchy was exiled and imprisoned during the period of Napoleonic control of Spain, the Central Junta in Cádiz instituted a governing body of elected representatives called the Cortes. The Cortes presided in 1812 over the writing of Spain’s first liberal constitution, which included some modest anticlerical clauses. Upon his restoration in 1814, Ferdinand VII immediately revoked the constitution
The Cortes built upon the foundation of the 1812 constitution to end clerical privileges, reduce the tithe, order the sale of church property, abolish the Inquisition
Born to wealthy criollo parents, Agustín de Iturbide
Modern rendering of Mexican insurgents in 1814.
The Plan de Iguala proposed to unite all classes and races under the “three guarantees” which, in reality, served to benefit the criollos. First, Mexico would be an independent constitutional monarchy. The crown would be offered to Ferdinand VII or another European royal. Second, Roman Catholicism would remain the sole religion, with its clerical privileges left intact. Third, all citizens were to be equal regardless of class or race. The criollos especially meant this to apply to their status compared to that of the peninsulares (residents of New Spain born in Spain), whose privileges the criollos resented. The plan interfered with no property rights. The viceroy, whose replacement from Spain was already en route, resigned after only a few skirmishes.
The new viceroy, Juan O’Donojú
The independence of Mexico, once the prize possession of the Spanish crown, foreshadowed Spain’s decline as a global empire. The Mexican War of Independence created Mexico’s gallery of historical heroes and villains, but it also ushered in a tradition of military intervention to achieve political goals—a legacy due to which Mexico has spent much of its national period suffering. For the common people, rural and illiterate, life changed very little as a result of independence. The constant bloodshed that followed throughout the next decade and a half reinforced the powerlessness of Mexican peasants to change their fates.
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Anna, Timothy E. The Mexican Empire of Iturbide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990. A political history of Mexico at the time of independence, with special emphasis on the statecraft of Agustín de Iturbide. Attempts to alter the traditional villainous view of the emperor by a more sympathetic and complex one. -
Archer, Chirston I., ed. The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780-1824. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2003. Collection of articles by various scholars concentrating on conditions and strategies for Mexican independence, placing the ideas and actions of Hidalgo and others in historical context. -
Bazant, Jan. A Concise History of Mexico from Hidalgo to Cárdenas, 1805-1940. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977. A highly quoted narrative history of the formative years of Mexico. Not highly analytical, especially concerning the war for independence, but includes fascinating anecdotes. -
Flores Caballero, Romeo. Counterrevolution: The Role of the Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico, 1804-1838. Translated by Jaime E. Rodriguez. Reprint. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974. Presents the role of the Spaniards in Mexico as the principal leaders of the colonial economy and the events that resulted in their replacement by the criollos. Refutes the common assumption that the expulsion of the Spaniards after Independence caused the bankruptcy of the Mexican economy. -
Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds. The Course of Mexican History. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. A comprehensive, well-balanced history of Mexico. Discusses the impact of events on society, including repercussions of independence for the common folk. -
Miller, Robert Ryal. Mexico: A History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. Highly readable, concise introduction to Mexican history from pre-Columbian times to the 1980’s. Emphasizes the nineteenth century and revolutionary periods. -
Robertson, William Spence. Iturbide of Mexico. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1952. A standard biography of Iturbide, based on extensive primary sources in Mexico. Reinforces the traditional portrait of Iturbide as a less-than-admirable figure in Mexican independence. Directly refuted by Anna’s study on Iturbide. -
Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo. Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People. New York: W. W. Norton, 1992. A passionate narrative on Mexican history. Often supplies different perspectives from those of the standard surveys.
Dos de Mayo Insurrection in Spain
Peninsular War in Spain
Hidalgo Issues El Grito de Dolores
Bolívar’s Military Campaigns
San Martín’s Military Campaigns
Brazil Becomes Independent
Texas Revolution
Mexican War
France Occupies Mexico
Díaz Drives Mexico into Civil War
Fanny Calderón de la Barca; Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla; Benito Juárez; Maximilian; Antonio López de Santa Anna.