The Peninsular War, in which the British military was primarily responsible for driving the French out of Spain, marked French emperor Napoleon I’s first major setback, while demonstrating the strength of the British army and revealing the weakness of Spain’s monarchy and the political divisions within Spain.
The Peninsular War, sometimes known as the War of Independence in Spain, changed Spain irrevocably. As one phase of the continental war against France, the Peninsular War was the arena in which the French emperor Napoleon I first tasted a serious military defeat. The war was touched off by the insurrection of May 2, 1808, in Madrid,
The need to coordinate military activities, together with the demand from the British for a formal government with which to ally, led to the formation of a central government in Spain
As the war against the French continued, the Spanish monarchy’s lack of prestige provoked demands for the enactment of radical measures in the form of a constitution.
The impact of the 1812 constitution
Although the members of the Cortes had no concern for peasants and common workers since it was made up of wealthy members of the bourgeoisie, Spain’s new constitution was by far the most democratic charter in Europe, and it established primary schools in hundreds of newly created municipalities. Moreover, the 1812 constitution mandated
Meanwhile, Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte,
The duke of Wellington (left) entering Badajoz after his troops breached its walls and recaptured the Spanish city from the French in March, 1812.
The war itself caused enormous destruction of property and life. Society began to break down because the nature of guerrilla warfare weakened the fabric of personal and collective relationships. French troops inflicted cruel atrocities and burned many villages. The brutality of the French forces became immortalized by the shocking etchings of the Spanish painter Francisco de Goya
In developing his plan for Spain, Napoleon seriously misjudged the Spanish character. The sheer tenacity of Spanish resistance forced him to use three hundred thousand troops to garrison every possible area in Spain. At that time, Napoleon was invading Russia, and most of the French soldiers used in Spain were conscripts
Soon afterward, the British army lifted the French siege of Cádiz. Meanwhile, guerrilla forces and bandits attacked French forces incessantly. Many Spanish priests claimed that killing French soldiers would not be a sin and that Spanish patriots could enter Heaven without question. Priests and monks also spread rumors that Napoleon had imprisoned the pope and reduced clerical privileges. By the summer of 1812, the French did not have enough forces to contain the Spanish and Anglo-Portuguese armies as well as guerrilla onslaughts. Short of money and equipment, the Spanish government offered command of its own armies to Wellington, who crushed Bonaparte’s forces at the Battle of Vitoria
Spanish forces played only an auxiliary role in Wellington’s campaign. The revolts in Spanish
Spanish and British forces did not cooperate well or greatly respect each other during the war. The bankruptcy of the Spanish government resulted in poorly equipped and badly commanded Spanish units that often disappointed the British. Wellington demanded a wide range of powers to subordinate both the Spanish army and Spanish provincial authorities to his command. The British government sent huge amounts of equipment and clothing to Spain. It angered Wellington to see Spanish soldiers begging in the streets, despite the provisions they were being given by the British. Fed up with the attempts of Spanish liberals to restrict his power, Wellington resigned his command in August, 1813, but the Cortes soon reinstated him. When Wellington invaded France at the end of 1813, however, he did not want Spanish troops to accompany him for fear that they would intensify resistance by French civilians.
Final victory in the Peninsular War did not improve relations between Spain and Great Britain. After the Spanish army had utterly humiliated itself during its 1812 and 1813 campaigns, Spanish officers became bitterly jealous over the success of the British forces as well as tactless British suggestions that British officers should lead Spanish armies. Many Spaniards were also embarrassed at not being able to participate in the invasion of France. Moreover, the liberals as well as the monarchists feared that Britain would encourage Spanish colonies to fight for their independence from Spain. Finally, Britain made no secret of its desire for free trade and better access to Spanish American markets and resources. A new treaty between Spain and Britain in 1814 mandated that Spain would never again ally with France, in return for a British promise to remain neutral in the Spanish American wars for independence.
In a desperate bid to regain influence in Spain, Napoleon released Ferdinand VII,
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Alexander, D. W. Rod of Iron: French Counter-insurgency Policy in Aragón During the Peninsular War. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1985. A careful analysis of the efforts of French commanders, primarily Suchet and Reille, to subjugate Aragón, obtain supplies for French forces, and prepare the area for annexation to France. The valuable insights of this study are also applicable to other Spanish provinces. -
Carr, Raymond. Spain, 1808-1975. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Broad history of Spain that contends that the aristocracy and regular clergy instigated agitation in favor of Ferdinand and against the French invaders. -
Christiansen, E. The Origins of Military Power in Spain, 1800-1854. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Strongly critical view of the Spanish military, with attention to its undistinguished role in the Peninsular War. -
Corrigan, Gordon. Wellington: A Military Life. London: Hambledon and London, 2001. A former soldier, Corrigan examines Wellington’s claims to military greatness, concluding that he was the first modern general. -
Esdaile, Charles J. The Peninsular War: A New History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Well-written and comprehensive history of the Peninsular War that covers all aspects of the war, from lively descriptions of individual battles to incisive analyses of political and social issues. -
______. The Spanish Army in the Peninsular War. New York: Manchester University Press, 1988. The author traces the composition, organization, and general outlook of the Spanish army during a total breakdown of central authority. -
Gates, David. The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War. New York: W. W. Norton, 1986. Emphasizes the role of the regular Spanish armies but makes little effort to describe and evaluate the role of the guerrillas. -
Lovett, Gabriel H. Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain. 2 vols. New York: New York University Press, 1965. Lovett concludes that the common people of Spain initiated a national campaign against the French. -
Weller, Jac. Wellington in the Peninsula. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1999. Lavishly illustrated popular history of Wellington’s campaigns in the Peninsular War.
Dos de Mayo Insurrection in Spain
Mexican War of Independence
Napoleon Invades Russia
Battle of Salamanca
Bolívar’s Military Campaigns
Goya Paints Third of May 1808: Execution of the Citizens of Madrid
San Martín’s Military Campaigns
Napoleon I; José de San Martín; Duke of Wellington.