Originally a royal concubine, Wu Hou became the only female emperor in Chinese history. Historians portray her as a ruthless autocrat, but her reign also saw great achievements in both domestic and foreign affairs.
Wu Zhao (Wu Chao; later Wu Hou) was born into a family from Wenshui in the province of Shanxi. Her father was a wealthy Chinese general who had served Li Yuan
In 649, Taizong died, and his son Li Zhi (Li Chih) became emperor as Gaozong.
Wu Zhao herself, however, soon took over the role of the emperor’s favorite companion, and in 652, she had a son by him. She became influential in the court, so a power struggle followed, with Empress Wang and her former rival Xiao Shufei now conspiring together against Wu Zhao. In 654, Wu Zhao gave birth to a daughter, who died suddenly in her crib. She blamed the death on Empress Wang, who had often held the newborn. Some historians suggest that Wu smothered her own infant so that Empress Wang would be blamed for the killing. The emperor believed Wu Zhao, but senior statesmen would not depose Empress Wang, who came from a powerful aristocratic family.
However, there were less powerful officials who saw an opportunity to advance, so they supported the arguments for change put forth by Gaozong and Wu Zhao. In 655, Empress Wang and Xiao Shufei were accused of trying to poison the emperor. As a result, Empress Wang was deposed, Wu Zhao was promoted to empress, and her son became the heir apparent. Empress Wang and Xiao Shufei were imprisoned and eventually murdered, possibly on orders from Wu Zhao. As time passed, an increasing number of Empress Wu’s opponents were sent into exile.
In 660, Gaozong suffered the first of many crippling strokes, which left him unable to rule. With each illness, he allowed Empress Wu to assume more power and make more decisions for him, although she could hold court only from behind a screen, in keeping with the Confucian tradition for empresses and empress dowagers. Eventually, she took over his whole administration. It is generally acknowledged by even her worse detractors that she ruled with intelligence. However, she was also ruthless in her will to power and removed, exiled, or executed anyone, even family members, who threatened her position.
In 674, the emperor and empress adopted new titles that placed them above their predecessors: heavenly sovereign (tian huang) and heavenly empress (tian hou). The empress’s popular and intelligent son and heir apparent, Li Hong
On December 27, 683, Emperor Gaozong died, and in 684, Empress Wu’s third son, Li Zhe (Li Che) ascended the throne as Emperor Zhongzong
Soon there was a plot by princes and other imperial family members in the Yangtze Valley. They issued a proclamation accusing the empress of killing her own children, amongst other crimes. The rebels were disorganized and eventually subdued by imperial armies. To crush any further opposition, Wu Zhao set up a system of rewards and promotions for informants who would advise the authorities about anyone plotting against her.
In 689, she appeared carrying the imperial scepter and wearing the imperial robes. She had the support of a group of Buddhist monks, who claimed that the Great Cloud Sutra, a Buddhist work, contained the prophecy of Empress Wu’s rise to the imperial throne. In 690, Ruizong abdicated in favor of his mother, and the high ministers asked her to ascend the throne. She named the new dynasty Zhou (Chou) and assumed the title of sage and divine emperor.
Eventually, as she grew older, there was the question of who would be her successor because there had never been a female monarch before. In 698, she decided to bring Zhongzong back from exile and proclaim him as her successor, instead of Ruizong. At the same time, there was increasing criticism of her dependence on sorcerers and young male concubines.
On February 22, 705, after a palace coup, she was forced to abdicate. The Tang Dynasty was restored, and Zhongzong became the emperor again on February 23, 705. He would remain emperor until 710. Wu was given the title “Zetian,” which means “supreme empress.” On December 16, 705, she died and was buried next to Emperor Gaozong in the Qianling Tomb.
Wu Hou’s achievements were numerous and significant. Between 655 and 675, she negotiated with Korea and persuaded that country to become an ally of China. She decreased military spending and operations and replaced the government’s military aristocracy with a scholarly bureaucracy based on merit examinations. She also lowered taxes, increased agricultural production, and constructed majestic buildings in the capital. Wu Hou also built Buddhist temples, cave sculptures, and hospitals. Chinese Buddhism
Wu Hou was the only female emperor in Chinese history. Many of the stories about her portray a cruel and ruthless despot, yet she was also a remarkable and successful ruler of the Chinese empire during one of its most glorious and peaceful periods.
Sources of information about her reign include the official Tang Dynasty histories, which were compiled by state-appointed historians as aids to government administration. Another source is the Zizhi tongjian (1084; comprehensive mirror for aid in government), the great imperial history by the Confucian scholar, Sima Guang
-
Fitzgerald, C. P. The Empress Wu. 2d ed. London: Cresset Press, 1968. A detailed, interesting biography of Empress Wu. This 263-page book includes maps, tables of relationship, an “Annual Table of Events,” notes on the chapters, and an index and bibliography in Chinese. -
Guisson, R. W. L. Wu Tse-Tien and the Politics of Legitimation in T’ang China. Bellingham: Western Washington University, 1978. In-depth study dealing with the question of the legitimation of Empress Wu’s position, the tension between Confucian state theory and the contradiction of a female ruler, and a nontraditional historiography. -
Hibbert, Eloise. Embroidered Gauze: Portraits of Famous Chinese Ladies. 1941. Reprint. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1969. The frontispiece is an illustration of Empress Wu, and the work includes a 33-page chapter on her. -
Paul, Diana. “Empress Wu and the Historians: A Tyrant and Saint of Classical China.” In Unspoken Worlds: Women’s Religious Lives in Non-Western Cultures, edited by Nancy Falk and Rita Gross. 3d ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2001. Paul analyzes Empress Wu’s relationship to the Buddhist and Confucian traditions. She discusses the possible reasons for the often negative historical views and presents a more balanced portrait of Empress Wu. -
Willis, John E. Mountain of Fame: Portraits in Chinese History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. One of the chapters is an interesting, general biography of the empress.