This treaty, which settled U.S. claims against Great Britain for having violated its neutrality during the Civil War, as well as several other disputes, was a milestone in international conciliation that helped to define the responsibilities of neutral nations in future international conflicts.
During the years immediately following the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865), British-American relations were dangerously tense. The principal cause was the lasting bitterness of Americans who had supported the Union toward what they regarded as Great Britain’s shamefully unneutral support of the Confederacy. On several occasions, Britain had come perilously close to recognizing the independence of the Confederate States of America
Although that step was never taken, British sympathy for the Confederacy was manifested by the government’s toleration of repeated evasions of Britain’s Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819,
On June 19, 1864, the notorious CSS Alabama was sunk off the coast of Cherbourg, France, by the USS Kearsage.
The case of the Alabama was so blatant a violation of Great Britain’s neutrality that just before its scheduled launching in July, 1862, the British government began proceedings to detain the ship. However, the Alabama escaped to begin an amazing career that would prove extremely embarrassing to the British government. Although the British government soon closed the loopholes in its neutrality laws, the U.S. government considered that the damage had already been done and that Britain should pay for its callous disregard of its neutrality obligations.
During the remainder of the war, Union claims for indemnity arising from Confederate depredations committed by the Alabama and other British-built warships mounted steadily, but the government of Lord Palmerston
Sumner’s real aim was not to bankrupt the British treasury but to force Britain to satisfy American demands by ceding Canada to the United States. The British government dismissed Sumner’s demands as utter insanity but was forced to note that both President Ulysses S. Grant and his new secretary of state, Hamilton Fish
When Britain decided to negotiate, Secretary Fish adopted a more moderate position, asking only for payment of existing American claims and an expression of regret. Informal conversations were begun between Fish and Sir John Rose
On February 27, 1871, official Washington shrugged off late winter dreariness to celebrate the beginning of a momentous gathering of American and British dignitaries. The social festivities that took place did much to dissipate the feelings of bitterness and suspicion that had dominated British-American relations since the war. The Washington conference had been called to deal with the U.S. claims against Britain. Proceedings began on a surprisingly cordial note, and within three months the two delegations had reached solutions or provided for later agreement on almost all matters at issue. Neither side would have believed when the negotiations were first arranged that such an explosive issue as the Alabama claims could be resolved with so little difficulty.
Comprising five American and five British representatives, the commission met in Washington from February 27 to May 8, 1871. Buoyed by foxhunting weekends, liberal ministrations of fine liquor, and superb food, the commissioners agreed without serious difficulty on a fair settlement. Most important was the treaty provision regarding the Alabama claims. Great Britain offered to express its formal regrets for the escape of the Alabama and other warships and agreed to submit the claims to binding arbitration. Furthermore, it accepted a definition of rules to govern neutral obligations toward belligerents.
Arbitration of the Alabama claims took place in Geneva
Although these regulations were not retroactive, the British were conceding victory to the American position in the forthcoming arbitration proceedings. This British-American agreement was a historic one for the future of neutrality. The treaty also provided for a temporary resolution of the quarrel over fishing privileges, an agreement to submit the question of the San Juan Islands to arbitration, and numerous other economic and territorial agreements. The Washington Treaty was a remarkable accomplishment and had been termed by some as the greatest example of international conciliation ever known. It also represented a significant diplomatic victory for the United States.
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Allen, Harry C. Great Britain and the United States: A History of Anglo-American Relations, 1783-1952. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1955. Useful survey of British-American relations from the time of the American Revolution through the Korean War of the twentieth century. -
Boykin, Edward C. Ghost Ship of the Confederacy: The Story of the “Alabama.” New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1957. Popular account of the notorious British-built Confederate warship Alabama. -
Cushing, Caleb. The Treaty of Washington: Its Negotiation, Execution, and the Discussions Relating Thereto. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1970. First published in 1873, this contemporary analysis of the Washington negotiations by the American diplomat who served as U.S. counsel at the Geneva tribunal is still valuable, especially for understanding the personalities and political issues involved. -
Duberman, Martin B. Charles Francis Adams, 1807-1886. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. Comprehensive biography based on exhaustive research in the Adams papers. Describes the crucial role Adams played in the resolution of the Geneva tribunal. -
Jones, Howard. Great Britain and the Confederate Navy, 1861-1865. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004. Scholarly examination of the British role in the development of the Confederate navy. -
Luraghi, Raimondo. A History of the Confederate Navy. Translated by Paolo E. Coletta. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1996. Fullest account yet published on the Confederate navy, by a leading European historian of the U.S. Civil War. Pays particular attention to Confederate innovations in technology and tactics during its unequal struggle against the Union navy. -
Smith, Goldwin A. The Treaty of Washington, 1871: A Study in Imperial History. 1941. New York: Russell & Russell, 1971. Study of the treaty that focuses on Canada’s role in the negotiations over the Alabama claims. Also clarifies numerous aspects of the diplomatic engagement. -
Still, William N., Jr., ed. The Confederate Navy: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1861-65. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1996. Well-illustrated guide to the ships of the Confederate navy, edited by a distinguished naval historian. A good companion to Raimondo Luraghi’s narrative history. -
Winks, Robin W. Canada and the United States: The Civil War Years. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960. This excellent monograph places in context difficulties between the United States and Canada.
Treaty of Ghent Takes Effect
Webster-Ashburton Treaty Settles Maine’s Canadian Border
United States Acquires Oregon Territory
U.S. Civil War
Caleb Cushing; Ulysses S. Grant; Lord Palmerston; Charles Sumner.