The enactment of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act added more than 100 million acres of pristine lands to the existing system of national parks, preserves, and refuges.
Under the 1958 Alaska Statehood Act,
What became know as the “d-2 decision”
In 1972, various federal agencies the National Park Service,
The U.S. House of Representatives voted in May, 1978, to set aside more than 116 million acres of federally owned lands and waters in Alaska, out of a total of about 375 million acres. The bill, authored by Morris K. Udall of Arizona in the House and Lee Metcalf
Senator Ted Stevens
In November, 1978, Andrus, by special order, closed 110 million acres of Alaska to development for three years to give Congress more time to act on the d-2 legislation. On December 1, 1978, Carter invoked the 1906 Antiquities Act
New d-2 legislation again passed the House in 1979, but Senate resistance to the legislation again stalled passage of any Alaska lands bill. A weakened compromise bill finally passed the Senate in August, 1980, surviving massive attacks from development interests and from those who believed that Alaska’s individualistic lifestyle was being threatened by outside interests. As the Senate compromise bill went to the House for approval, little time remained for conservationists to restore many of the deleted lands to the bill. No action was taken on this lands bill until the lame duck session following the 1980 election. Threats of Senate filibusters by Alaska’s Stevens and Gravel convinced congressional supporters that this compromise legislation was the best action that could be achieved. The unfavorable political climate for d-2 legislation forecast by the election of Ronald Reagan
Despite the compromise, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, often known as the Alaska Lands Act, was one of the greatest conservation actions of the twentieth century. It doubled the acreage of the national park system with its 43.6 million acres, added 53.8 million acres to the national wildlife refuge system, and added 3.4 million acres to the national forest system, including two new national monuments on Forest Service land. It also designated the protection of twenty-six wild and scenic rivers or segments of rivers. It tripled the size of the national wilderness preservation system with its 56.4 million acres. This single legislative act, born of the Alaska Statehood Act and the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act,
Alaska is in many ways considered to be the last frontier in the United States, but the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act opened a new era in conservation history, in state and federal cooperation, and in the preservation of resources, cultural heritages, and lifestyles. Because of their importance to Alaska Natives,
The cultural values and lifestyles of Alaska Natives were considered as important as the physical features of these new parks, but the issue of subsistence hunting rights for Alaska Natives remained controversial. Other federal legislation has recognized Alaska Natives’ needs for such rights. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972
Recreational hunting, or sport hunting, generates several million dollars for Alaskan businesses each year. Normally, no sport hunting is allowed on lands managed by the National Park Service, but d-2 lands legislation recognized the importance of this activity in Alaska and designated some 18.9 million acres of land to be added to the national park system as preserves rather than parks; sport hunting is allowed on these preserve lands in Alaska. National parks in Alaska where sport hunting is not allowed make up about 8 percent of Alaska’s total area.
Subsistence activities are also allowed on the newly established national wildlife refuges under section 810 of the Alaska Lands Act. It requires federal land managers to assess the impacts of their management actions on the refuges in light of subsistence needs. Six regional councils were established to advise the secretary of the interior on the management of the refuge system as it related to subsistence needs of Native Americans.
Other sections of the Alaska Lands Act were proposed for special interests within the state. One section of this legislation provided an annual subsidy of $40 million to guarantee that timber production from the Tongass National Forest
In the early 1980’s, the Reagan administration selectively distorted, ignored, and violated the intent of the Alaska Lands Act; in many instances, the administration made it a development act. Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt
Many of the d-2 lands include parcels owned by Alaska Natives through lands selected under the jurisdiction of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. These lands represent potential development within otherwise undisturbed wilderness areas. Effective planning is needed to control development of these areas so that it does not destroy the unique qualities of the surrounding d-2 lands.
What has been preserved by congressional action is not always protected. Section 810 of the act requires that federal land managers assess the impacts of their decisions on subsistence users. In 1987, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case of Amoco Production Company v. Village of Gambell.
A key concept of the d-2 land selections was to include entire ecosystems so that the ecological integrity of these biological systems on wildlife refuges would be maintained in Alaska. Detailed plans were to be compiled for sixteen areas. The greatest conservation fight involving d-2 lands was expected to be related to the development of oil reserves within the boundaries of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
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Catton, Theodore. Inhabited Wilderness: Indians, Eskimos, and National Parks in Alaska. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997. Examines the concept of “inhabited wilderness,” which was an important factor in the passage of the Alaska Lands Act. Includes maps, bibliography, and index. -
National Geographic Society. Guide to the National Parks: Alaska. Washington, D.C.: Author, 2005. Provides details on all aspects of Alaska’s federal lands. Includes excellent photographs. -
National Parks Magazine 55, no. 3 (1981). Entire issue is devoted to the history and future of public lands management in Alaska. The National Parks and Conservation Association deserves much of the credit for the passage of the Alaska Lands Act. -
Stock, Dennis. Alaska. New York: Harrison House, 1983. Provides an outstanding overview of the beauty of Alaska’s lands. Features 190 photographs supplemented by detailed text about Alaska. -
Strohmeyer, John. Extreme Conditions: Big Oil and the Transformation of Alaska. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Presents in fascinating style the story of the changes resulting from the discovery of oil in Alaska. Details the events that shaped the way Alaskans view their resources and how their attitudes affected conservation efforts. Highly recommended. -
Wilderness 41, no. 164 (1984). Entire issue is devoted to the history of the development and implementation of the Alaska Lands Act. Provides a good overview of the battle for conservation in Alaska. Well written and accompanied by spectacular photographs.
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